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As the saying goes, one is never too old to learn. People participate in all kinds of learning activities throughout their lives. The state, educational organizations and educators provide various continuing support with the same goal: to develop individual potential, to encourage the ceaseless acquisition of more knowledge and skills, to help people live happy lives full of confidence and creativity, and to promote self-improvement, all so as to develop human resources, to improve the overall quality of the people and to foster a learning-oriented society. Therefore, educators design various ways to encourage active study, and the state guarantees the citizens’ rights to education and learning through education legislation and policies promoting education. As far as learning recognition is concerned, researchers classify the different styles of learning as formal education, non-formal education and informal education[1].We adopt all kinds of certificate systems to assess and convert learning into actual, tangible achievements, and to promote further learning. Other countries have developed PLAR as a comprehensive assessment of an applicant's learning, work and life experience prior to enrollment in higher education. PLAR promotes learning by converting the assessment factors into real credits that can substitute for those in higher education institutions (HEIs). The system is of great value in promoting respect for learning, encouraging learning, conserving resources, cultivating integrity and upholding the rule of law. However, it is fairly new in China and this paper sets out to analyze and explain the system from a legal perspective.
Ⅰ. A Brief Introduction to PLAR
1. The concept of PLAR
"Prior Learning Assessment and Recognition", abbreviated PLAR, is also known by different names. In North America, PLAR is also PLA (Prior Learning Assessment) for short. In Europe and Oceania, it is abbreviated as APL (Assessment of Prior Learning), VINFL (Validation of Informal and Non-Formal Learning), RPL (Recognition of Prior Learning), RNFIL (Recognition of Non-Formal and Informal Learning), and APEL (Assessment of Prior Experiential Learning). Non-English speaking countries naturally have their own names for PLAR. In the field of natural science, PLAR can also stand for perceptual log area ratio, popularity and locality-based adaptive replication, etc. We hold that despite the differing aliases for PLAR, the basic concepts are the same, and the difference of terminology stems from the comparative newness and lack of international collaboration in the field. This paper chooses the term PLAR because it is comprehensive and yet concise. Furthermore, the term PLAR was previously adopted by Zhang Shaogang, Wang Ying and Yin Shuangxu in their paper "PLAR: a Positive Trial of Distance Higher Education", and maintaining consistent terminology can avoid confusion in research. PLAR is defined as a systematic process for appraising, recording, assessing and confirming skills and knowledge learned through formal or non-formal learning, including work and life experience, training, self-study, volunteer work, travel, hobby, family experience, and so on.[2] Dr. Christine Wihak, a famous Canadian PLAR scholar, holds that PLAR is the practice of assessing and recognizing knowledge and skills acquired by adults through experience and informal learning, and does not include that acquired through formal education. [3] [4] As a matter of fact, the two views are consistent. Though the former view mentions formal learning, examples given for the types of learning include only non-formal learning and informal learning.
2. The functions of PLAR
What does PLAR do, and why should we study and adopt this system? In brief, PLAR aims to convert learners’ knowledge and skills into generally accepted credits. In summary, its major functions are as follows:
(1) Recording and certifying adult learning experiences. Work experience, knowledge and skills acquired through hobbies, participation in various training programmes, or simply the things learned through day-to-day life all contribute to a person's overall refinement. Without a cumulative record, learners do not have a clear view of their learning achievements, and their initiative to study would be dampened. With PLAR record certification, their learning achievements become solidified, measurable and convertible, and this promotes positive learning and lifelong learning. The keys to lifelong learning are promoting an inner transformation in individual learners and advocating lifelong continuous learning for citizens and active participation in meaningful learning activities.
2）Supplementing and promoting a credit transfer and credit bank system. With the increase of students' autonomy, mobility, and diversity, individualized education services have become the global trend. PLAR supplements the credit transfer system by summing and converting the applicants’ credits before enrollment with those after enrollment. Only when the credit transfer mechanism is operating smoothly can the credit bank with further credit exchange be of real significance. The credit bank system, which uses credits as its circulation currency, facilitates credit deposit and transfer and features a flexible and open system that combines enrollment, transfer, credit and study functions. It offers learning opportunities to all members of society and promotes coordination between schools, between schools and teachers, and between schools and students.
(3) Saving time and money. If the accumulated knowledge, skills, and experiences of adult learners cannot be counted up and verified, then they cannot be recognized by societal organizations. If individuals are required to master such content for work or other reasons, they would have to enroll in study or training programmes again, which is a waste of time and money for the individuals and for the organization. In fact, redundant study and training is a waste for society as a whole. Adopting PLAR and recognizing prior learning achievements gives people more opportunities for continuous learning, shortens the time needed for formal learning, saves money for individuals and organizations, and conserves societal resources.
(4) High value for receiving organizations. Applicants with PLAR assessments are a great asset to the HEIs that receive them. Their wealth of experience makes up for the lack of practical experience at the receiving institution or study programmes and contributes to the development of the discipline. PLAR assessment expands teachers’ professional knowledge and encourages professional development; it builds closer relations between HEIs and societal organizations, raises public awareness of what these universities or organizations do and what services they provide, and increases the visibility of participating organizations.
(5) Cultivating a society with integrity. Integrity is a fundamental requirement in any transaction; without it, no transaction could be conducted. Integrity needs to be cultivated in a society, for it is human nature to seek profit and avoid loss. PLAR affects every learner. Establishment of a PLAR system requires that first the organizing institutions act with integrity; once application rules are set, no changes can be made unless they benefit the learners. An honest, fair assessment of learning achievements gives learners a sense of accomplishment and pride. At the same time, it increases individuals' faith in society and leads to reasonable expectations.
3. Suitable target groups for PLAR
(1) Applicants for higher education who have acquired experience through work, volunteer activities, military service, or other specialized experiences. Their experience may measure up to part or even all of the knowledge learned at a university. Assessment and recognition may make up for the energy they spent on prior work, service or volunteer activities.
(2) Those who have worked for a period of time after completion of college education and would like to go for further study and professional enrichment. These applicants have accumulated a wealth of experience at the workplace and need theoretical reinforcement to take their work performance to a higher level. There is no use wasting time to restudy foundational knowledge.
(3) People who receive higher education later in life. These people receive higher education later than others in their age group. They may be socially disadvantaged or persons with special skills. They may not meet the qualifications for university admission, and need special consideration.
4. Forms of PLAR recognition
(1) Recognition of industry training certifications. Professional training is usually placed before university education since it is a faster way to renew knowledge. Examples include IT certifications and language proficiency certifications. With the recent proliferation of professional certifications, training institutions are taking into consideration long term development and placing greater emphasis on the quality of training certifications. For example, Microsoft training certifications may be directly recognized by university computer departments.
(2) Setting up knowledge and skill files (or portfolios). Students create portfolios according to specified rules, and experts in the field make an assessment as to whether each student meets the criteria to receive credits. The portfolios are usually electronic files. The list of courses for which students may submit portfolios for assessment is decided based on course features, strength of teaching faculty, etc., and then uniformly published by the school.
(3) Examinations. Students participate in unified national examinations, such as English qualification tests and accountant tests. If a student takes the examination according to regulations at a designated examination center and receives a passing score, this can be recognized and converted into credits.
(4) Challenge courses. These courses come with teaching syllabus and appraisal examination. If a student passes the appraisal examination, he or she can receive the corresponding credits. The appraisal method for a challenge course is established according to the features of the course. For example, for the Industrial Design course at the University of Maryland University College, the students present their designed works or give a speech instead of taking a conventional examination.
(5) Assessment by a specified educational institution. Take for example the University of Maryland University College. If the applicant completed a particular training programme, he or she can submit evidence of the knowledge acquired through training to the American Council on Education, a PLAR authority. Once the training is assessed by the PLAR authority, the applicant can receive a certain number of credits for the relevant major, and these credits are then recognized by the university.
(6) Agreements between institutions. For example, HEIs may recognize learning experience or credits through agreements with other HEIs, educational training organizations and other societal organizations. The agreements include necessary terms and clauses, such as the background of the parties involved, assessment criteria, mutual recognition and cost. Mutual recognition of credits between international organizations of higher education is also generally achieved through agreements. Some agreements cannot be signed unless approved by special administrative agencies. For example, Canada's “Committee for Foreign Credit Recognition” is tasked with recognizing credits of universities in different countries. If a school wants to establish mutual credit recognition with a certain Canadian university, approval of the organization is a prerequisite. However, not all schools have to apply for recognition; world-famous universities do not need explicit recognition. The duration of the agreements tends to be rather long, such as six years. The stability of the agreement is of great importance to students.
Ⅱ. Development and Implementation of PLAR Around the World
1. France
The earliest official use of PLAR was legislated in France. The French government successively issued three decrees relating to recognition of non-formal learning achievements. The contents include legislation regarding university organizations that perform recognition, the role of recognition committee members, decisions made by recognition committee members, the role of tutorial consultants, qualification of applicants, and preparation procedures for applicants. In 1934, France passed a law concerning prior profession recognition. Any citizen whose professional experience met the specified criteria and was certified by an authorized institution could obtain the qualification of senior engineer. The decree approved recognition for all or part of the certificates, diplomas and qualification certificates for professional training programmes. It specified that any self-taught technical professional, auditing student or active student meeting the qualifications (at least 35 years of age, minimum 5 years of practical work experience as an engineer, etc.) was eligible to obtain the national qualification for senior engineer by way of recognition.[5] Regulations for engineering qualifications were further improved in the 1950s, placing emphasis on recognizing the employees’ abilities instead of their record of formal schooling, and encouraging them to sharpen their professional skills at work. In 1985, "La Validation des Acquis Professionnels" (VAP) was issued in France, which set forth the process for prior profession recognition. This decree aimed to help all the adults who wanted to receive higher education but did not meet enrollment qualifications, and it opened a new and non-traditional learning channel for them. The decree specified that all adults aged above 20 years can apply for higher education. Individuals could receive assessment and recognition regardless of whether their prior experience and knowledge were acquired through paid work, volunteer work, or independent study. The purpose of the policy was to encourage people to start learning again. In January 2002, "Social Modernization Law" was issued in France, which further affirmed that knowledge can be acquired through manual labor and that qualifications equivalent to professional training could be acquired through manual labor. To this end, "La Validation des Acquis de l’Expérience" (VAE) was passed, changing professional acquisition into experiential acquisition and broadening the scope of professional qualification recognition. As such, the concept of “prior profession recognition” gradually evolved into “prior experience recognition”. Both VAP and VAE assess professional experience and schooling, and advocate learning from experience. France issued the National Professional Certification Registry （RVCP） to be specifically assessed by a jury or panel of experts. On February 15, 2007, a representative of the French minister together with 16 professional departments organized by several employer organizations jointly signed the National Agreement for the Development of Prior Experience Recognition. This agreement has established increasingly mature regulations for informal and non-formal learning recognition and educational training. [6] [7] [8]In sum, France has successfully used legislation to gradually establish a system for differentiating and assessing informal learning and experiential learning.
2. United States
In English-speaking countries, PLAR in the educational sector appeared in the United States after World War II. At that time, formal education posed a great challenge for veterans returning from the battlefield. It was this challenge that prompted a change from standardized examinations to more simplified college entrance examinations. At the suggestion of a research committee on non-traditional education, a few universities in the northeastern United States started working together to conduct pilot PLAR projects at the Educational Testing Service in Princeton, New Jersey, in 1971. By the end of 1970's, the nonprofit organization Council for Adult and Experiential Learning (CAEL) emerged as a leader in the recognition of experiential learning. It developed PLAR practices and published a great number of influential works on the subject. [9] Between 1968 and 1974, 13 HEIs focusing on adult education and offering PLAR were founded or expanded. Thus, PLAR gained momentum and became an important part of the movement for equal access to education. At present, over half of the universities in the United States implement a PLAR assessment system, but detailed regulations differ by state. Some states, such as Minnesota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania and Vermont, have instituted a statewide PLAR system. [10]In some universities in New York, all of the credits required for graduation can be transferred from PLAR credits, meaning that PLAR applicants can apply for a degree directly. In Maryland, a maximum of 30 credits may be transferred through PLAR. For example, University of Maryland University College requires 120 credits for an undergraduate degree, of which up to 30 credits, or one fourth, may be PLAR credits.